1.(1) Modernism (现代主义)
A movement of experiment in new techniques in writing. Modernist fiction represented a trend drifting away from the tradition of the 19th century realism. It put emphasis on the description ogoometimes it is called modern psychological fiction. Lawrence is a typical representative of it
Realism（现实主义）
Realism was a loosely used term meaning truth to the observed facts of life （especially when they are gloomy）。 Realism in literature is an approach that attempts to describe life without idealization or romantic subjectivity.
Realism现实主义: An elastic and ambiguous term with two meanings. (1) First, it refers generally to any artistic or literary portrayal of life in a faithful, accurate manner, unclouded by false ideals, literary conventions, or misplaced aesthetic glorification and beautification of the world. It is a theory or tendency in writing to depict events in human life in a matter-of-fact, straightforward manner. It is an attempt to reflect life "as it actually is"--a concept in some ways similar to what the Greeks would call mimesis. (2) Secondly and more specifically, realism refers to a literary movement that developed out of naturalism in the nineteenth and twentieth centuries. Although realism and the concern for aspects of verisimilitude have been components of literary art to one degree or another in nearly all centuries, the term realism also applies more specifically to the tendency to create detailed, probing analyses of the way "things really are," usually involving an emphasis on nearly photographic details.These writers include such diverse artists as Mark Twain, Tolstoy, &Thomas Hardy.
Modernism（现代主义）: Around the two world wars, many writers and artists began to suspect and be discontent with the capitalism. They tried to find new ways to express their understanding of the world. It was a movement of experiments in techniques in writing. It flourished in the 20s and 30s in English literature.They turned their interest to describing what was happening in the minds of their characters. Because of their emphasis on the psychological activities of the characters, their writings are also called psychological novels. The Representatives are W.B. Yeats and T.S. Eliot,D.H. Lawrence, E.M. Foster, James Joyce and Virginia Woolf
Modernism: 1) The rise Of modernism movement Modernism rose out of skepticism and disillusionment of capitalism, which made writers and artists search for a new ways to express their understanding of the world and the human nature. The French symbolism was the forerunner of
modernism. The First World War quickened the rising of all kinds of literary trends of modernism, which, toward the 1920s, converged into a mighty torrent of modernist movement. The major figures associated with the movement were Kafka, Picasso, Pound, Eliot, Joyce, and Virginia Woolf. Modernism was somewhat curbed in the 1930s. but after World War II, Varieties of modernism, or post-modernism, rose again with the spur of Sarter‟s existentialism. However, they gradually disappeared or diverged into other kinds of literary trends in the 1960s. 2) The characteristics of modernism ●Modernism marks a strong and conscious break with the past, by rejecting the moral, religious and cultural values of the past. ●Modernism emphasizes on the need to move away from the public to the private, from the objective to the subjective. ●Modernism upholds a new view of time by emphasizing the psychic time over the chronological one. It maintains that the past, the present and the future are one and exist at the same time in the consciousness of individual as a continuous flow rather than a series of separate moments. ●Modernism is, in many respects, a reaction against realism. It rejects rationalism, which is the theoretical base of realism; it excludes from its major concern the external, objective, material world, which is the only creative source of realism; it casts away almost all the traditional elements in literature like story, plot, character, chronological narration, etc., which are essential to realism. As a result, the works created by the modernist writers can often be labeled as anti-novel, anti-poetry or anti-drama
[22] Realism:（写实主义） A term used in literature and art to present life as it really is without sentimentalizing or idealizing it. Realistic writing often depicts the everyday life and speech of ordinary people. This has led, sometimes to an emphasis on sordid details.
Critical Realism (批判现实主义) Critical realism is one of the literary genres that flourished mainly in the 19th century. It reveals the corrupting influence of the rule of cash upon human nature. Here lies the essentially democratic and humanistic character of critical realism. The English critical realists of the 19th century not only gave a satirical portrayal of the bourgeoisie and all the ruling classes, but also showed profound sympathy for the common people. In their best works, they used humor and satire to contrast the greed and hypocrisy of the upper classes with the honesty and good-heartedness of the obscure “simple people” of the lower classes. Humorous scenes set off the actions of the positive characters, and the humor is often tinged with a lyricism which serves to stress the fine qualities of such characters. At the same time,bitter satire and grotesque is used to expose the seamy side of the bourgeois society. The critical realists, however, did not find a way to eradicate the social evils they knew so well. They did not realize the necessity of changing 4 the bourgeois society through conscious human effort. Their works do not
point toward revolution but rather evolution or reformism. They often start with a powerful exposure of the ugliness of the bourgeois world in their works, but their novels usually have happy endings or an impotent compromise at the end. Here are the strength and weakness of critical realism. 批判现实主义是盛行于19世纪的文学流派之一，揭示了金钱控制一切对人性的恶劣影响，这正是19世纪批判现实主义民主和人文特点的根源。19世纪的英国批判现实主义者不但讽刺性地描述了资产阶级和其他统治阶级，而且表现了对普通大众的深切同情。在他们最好的作品中，他们利用幽默和讽刺的手法对比了上层阶级的贪婪和虚伪以及下层阶级普通大众的诚实和善良。幽默的场景伴随着正面人物的行动，但是这种幽默略带了柔情的意味，强调了这些人物好的一面。同时，也用辛辣的讽刺和怪诞的风格来揭露资产阶级社会丑恶的一面。但是，批判现实主义者们并没有找到办法消除他们所熟知的社会罪恶，他们没有意识到通过人们有意识的努力来改变资本主义社会的必要性。他们作品中的主要倾向不是革命，而是改革；在他们的作品中，他们通常是在开始时强有力地揭示了资本主义世界的丑恶，最后只是提供一个巧合的喜剧结尾或者以无力的妥协来结束。在这里我们同时看到了批判现实主义的优点和弱点。
批判现实主义
Brief Introduction: A. Time – flourishing in the forties and in the early fifties, produced by the tense class struggle B. Idea – The critical realists described with much vividness and great artistic skill the chief traits of the English society and criticized the capitalist system from a democratic viewpoint. They criticized the corrupting influence of the rule of cash upon human nature C. Class nature – bourgeois D. Representatives – Dickens, Thackeray E. Differences between 18th c realism and 19th c critical realism -- profound sympathy for the common people -- the broad social conflicts over and above the fate of mere individuals F. Artistic skills – humour and satire (esp. by Dickens) G. Class limitation – petty-bourgeois reformism ii. Charles Dickens (1812-1870) -- the greatest representative of English critical realism
（1）Critical Realism is the main trend of the literary thoughts in the late 19th century. It reveals the corrupting influence of the rule of cash upon human nature. Critical realists first and foremost set themselves the task of criticizing capitalist society from a democratic viewpoint of bourgeoisie reality. As far as the literary form or “genre” is concerned, the major contribution made by the 19th century critical realists lies in their perfection of the novels. Like the realists of the 18th century, the 19th century critical realists made use of the form of novel for full and detailed representations of social and political events, and of the fate of individuals and of whole social classes.
Realism‟s emphasis is mainly on detachment, objectively, and accurate observation, its lucid but
restrained criticism of social environment, and the humane understanding that underlay its moral judgments became an integral part of the fabric of modern novel during the height of that form‟s development, and reproduce the truth of society objectively is the most fundamental significance of realism
（2）What are the main characteristics of the English critical realism?
English critical realism of the 19th century flourished in the forties and in the early fifties. The critical realists described with much vividness and artistic skill the chief trait of the English society and criticized the capitalist system from a democratic viewpoint. The English critical realists of the 19th century not only gave a satirical portrayal of the bourgeoisie and all the ruling classes, but also showed profound sympathy for the common people.
In their best works, the greed and hypocrisy of the upper-classes are contrasted with the honesty and good-heartedness of the obscure “simple people” of the lower classes. Hence humor and satire abound in the English realistic novels of the 19th century. The critical realists of the 19th century did not, and, due to their world outlook, could not, find a way to eradicate social evils.
Accuracy
Realism strives for absolute accuracy in the depiction of its subjects, devoid of any unnecessary dramatics or artistic affectation. Realistic works refrain from undue embellishment, aiming for a natural (as opposed to an artificial) tone.
Honesty
Realism seeks the depiction of honesty, rather than hiding things behind distortions or opinions. Unpleasant facts or images are presented as they are, as are plain or unassuming details about the subject.
Independence
Philosophical realism stresses the independence of objects from their observer. They have a life and an existence separate from anything else, which will continue regardless of anyone's thoughts on the matter. Ordinariness
The subjects of realistic works are defined not by their exceptional nature, but by how ordinary they are. Shopkeepers are emphasized over military generals, for example, or streetlamps over grandiose mountains. Difficulties
Realistic protagonists are often beset by great forces beyond their control--the natural world, for instance, or the indifference of a larger society--and in many cases they do not triumph in their struggle. Unhappy endings aren't universal in realistic stories, but they are fairly common, while happy endings often entail compromise and pyrrhic victories.
6. Plot
(1)Plot refers to the structure of a story, (2) the plot of a literary work includes the rising action， the climax, the falling action and the resolution. It has a protagonist who is opposed by an antagonist ，creating what is called conflict.
5. Point of View（叙述角度）
Point of view can be divided by the narrator„s relationship with the character， represented by the grammatical person： the first-person narrative， the third-person narrative， and omniscient narrator.